Alignment of strokes: citizens' font

Civil font - Font drawing introduced in Russia after the reform of Peter I (1708) for civilian publications. Up to 1708 was used by the old Slavonic font.

Development of science and education in Russia to the beginning. 18 V. It demanded easier and accessible to the wide circles of the population of the alphabet. Therefore, Peter I carried out the reform of the Old Slavonic font - the alphabet and spelling were simplified, changed the font schedule. By this time, from 41 letters of the Old Slavic alphabet, some were excessive. 9 of such letters Peter I excluded in the original version of the new alphabet: 6 letters duplicating the same sounds - "izh" and "Izhitsa" (instead of these letters was left "I"), "Earth" ("Zelo" remained) , "Omega" (he remained "he"), "UK" (remained "y"), "Firth" (remained "Fita"); 2 Greek combinations of "KSI" and "PSI", as well as the letter denoting the pretext "from" ("Omega" with the overall sign "T"). However, in the final edition of the ABC (1710), only 3 letters were excluded: "from", "Omega" and "Psi". In addition, the lettering was introduced: instead of iothed. "E" - letter "E" Lat. drawing; Instead of Yotanted "A" - the letter "I", K-paradium was already used in my miles, the letter of the end of the 17th century, and the revolving "e", which is necessary primarily for transmission in the words of the initial "e" without the previous "Yota". Significantly simplified spelling, since "Forces" and "Titles" were excluded - signs of stress and abbreviations. The designation of the numbers with letters making it difficult to arithmetic. Actions were simplified by the introduction of Arabic numbers. In addition, soon after approval, the new alphabet ceased to use the letters of "bearer" and "UK" (instead of them "Earth" and "U"). G. Sh., Approved by Peter I, existed mainly to 1735, when according to the decision of the Academy of Sciences, the letters "Psi" and "Izhitsa" were excluded from the alphabet and the letter "and" was introduced; In 1738, "I" was excluded and left "I" (it was used before vowels, and "and" - in all other cases). In 1758, "Izhitsa" was restored in separate foreign words and a combination of letters for iothed "O" was introduced.

Despite the fact that even V. K. Trediakovsky (1703 - 69) offered to withdraw from Rus. Alphabets are extra letters, in particular, "Fit", one of two "and" and "yat", these letters remained in the alphabet right up to the led. Oct. Revolution.

Documents of the Moscow Synodal Typography 1707 - 09 and the similarity of Graphic Sh. With miles, late 17 and beginning letter. 18 centuries. Refuted the previously existing opinion, put forward by Tremakovsky, that G. Sh. It was built solely on the basis of LAT. font. G. Sh. It was created on the basis of new types of rus. Letters that appeared at the end of the 17th century. and spreading at 18th century, as well as on the basis of the print font of the LAT. "Antiqua". The title of alphabet, approved by Peter I 29 Jan. 1710, "" An image of ancient and new Pistemslaven printed and handwritten "- indicates the connection of G. W, with handwritten font. Originals of drawings of letters G. Sh. Deli "Drawberry and draftsman" Kulenbach, and sketches of letters - Peter himself; Litera were manufactured in Amsterdam and Moscow. The book of Petrovsky time, recruited by the new font, has gained a fully secular image. The first such book was the "Geometry of Slavensky Surlender" (1708). Staroslavansky font (Kirillovsky semi-owned) remained in church books, obtaining the name of the "church" or "Church Slavonic".

"The introduction of the Russian civilian alphabet indicates the decline in the church-book culture of the Middle Ages, the loss of the Church Slavonic language of the dominant position in the structure of the Russian literary language and at the same time marked the way to the future struggle for the creation of a national-Russian literary language" (Vinogradov V. V., Essays On the history of the Russian literary language of the XVII - XIX centuries 1938, p. 80).

Sources:

1. Pedagogical encyclopedia. Volume 1. Ch. Red.- A.I. Cairo and F.N. Petrov. M., Soviet Encyclopedia, 1964. 832 pole. From Ill., 7l. ill.

When asked when a civil alphabet was introduced in Russia and who? Posted by the author Ўry Chernov The best answer is January 25 - the birthday of a civil alphabet introduced by Peter I instead of the Church Slavonic alphabet in 1708. Civil - in the meaning "not church, secular".
The civilian alphabet has become a kind of simplification, but not by changing the former alphabet - Cyrillic. The letter "False" disappeared from the Civil Printing; The letters "Zelo", "Omega", "From", "KSI", Psi, "UK" were destroyed. Izhitsa was abolished, the forces were abolished (a complex system of diacritical stagnation signs) and Title - the first signs that allowed certain letters "under the title" in the frequently encountered words. Rows made by forces and titles became unintelligible, led to confusion, to errors. Developing close relations with enlightened Europe, Russia could not not refuse from a complex system of numerical designations: "Khlebnik, German Akurataya," probably could hardly consider what is worth one hundred minus thirty plus twenty, if it is known that 20 - k, 30 - L, and 100 - r ... confusing ...
But still, before the future final system of civil font, it was still fairly enough: at the end of January 1710, Peter I immediately approved a new alphabet, but this option was imperfect - many more decades the composition of the alphabet and drawing alphabetic signs and changed. Up until 1918, the letters "EP", "Yat", "Izhitsa", "and Decimal", "Fita" continued to remain in the alphabu, "Fita" - as a rule, the use of which has become redundant at that time. Thus, in the directory "The All Petersburg" of 1902 two groups of residents of the capital with the name of Fedorov were indicated: one group - about four hundred people - he wrote through the modern letter F, others - just eleven - through the "Fit" ...
The memory of these letters - the symbols of a difficult letter and literacy learning - remained in proverbs and sayings. Register the Izhitsa - punish for the unseerable, make a reprimand, and also carve. On yat - very good, as it should; A cow through Yat writes - about who is small, ignorant. From Fita led the belly, Fita da Izhitsa - to the lazy whip is nearer.
In 1918, a variant of the Russian alphabet was approved, which we still use so far. Alphabet 1918 Although it turned out to be rather unusual for "competent" people (for example, Lev Uspensky recalled how he even in 1925 sometimes wrote his surname through the "yat"), but was more comfortable, simple compared to the same, " Civil.

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Hey! Here is a selection of topics with answers to your question: when in Russia, a civil alphabet was introduced and who?

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Civil Font (Civil ABC) of the Russian Alphabet
entered in the publications of civilian printing in Russia after the reform of the printed Kirillovsky semi-wool, produced by Peter I in 1708. I went to the basis of the modern Russian font.
As you know, in Russia XVIII century. - Age of Encyclopedism and Enlightenment - begins with the grandiose reforms of Peter I, which have engulfed all directions of social activities. The main thing for us is that the Tsar Reformer not only realized the role as we say now, information in the life of society, but also actively contributed to the introduction of a typography as the most important means of forming ideology, the development of science, technology, art, education and culture as a whole. In this regard, two Petrovsky undertakes are especially noteworthy. This, firstly, the separation of church and secular (civil) book publishing and, secondly, the creation of a new civilian alphabet. The latter not only democratized a book case, a diploma learning process facilitated, but also contributed to the mass distribution of the book and, it means, information, knowledge in the Russian people. The introduction of a new civilian alphabet had an important ideological value: in the first place, no religious, but human, secular problems and values \u200b\u200bare nominated. Later, M.V. Lomonosov figuratively determined the role of civilian alphabet, saying that under Petra I, even letters took their boyars coats.
On the basis of the civil font, civilians in its content, or secular, typography are steadily developing. Kirillovskaya seal from universal turns into church not only in form, but also in content. Secular literature acquires its own form of printed expression. This is fully related to the bibliography. Until the XVIII century. The object was preferably a handwritten book. Only in some cases, bibliographic manuals reflected the printed book.

Civil font - the font, which began to apply in Russia in the books of civil press as a result of the reform I spent in 1708-1710.

Its goal was to give the Russian book, before that the semi-supest was called (one of the species of the letter in Slavic manuscripts), the appearance characteristic of the European Book of that time.

In early 1701, Peter I reorganized the monastery order, the head of which was appointed one of the most educated boyars of that time - Musina Pushkin. He was instructed to manage all publishing affairs, printing houses, in particular, and a print yard. Under his leadership, the printing of Russian books in Amsterdam was also carried out. The Church Slavonic semi-superstrussa became archaic for new publications of secular and scientific content, and in front of Peter I got an extremely important problem - the creation of a new civilian printing font.

As researchers indicate, the writing analysis of the late XVII - early XVIII century gives grounds to assert that the primary Russian civil font was to a certain extent, the Moscow Civil Letter of the early XVIII century, processed on the basis of Latin antiqua.

The features of the antiquity font are the construction of a circle and a square-based letters, a smooth contrast between the main and connecting strokes, the nature of the languages, all this was also reflected in the Russian civilian font.

In January 1707, Peter I personally drew sketches, according to which the drawer and drawing team of Kulenbach, who served at the army headquarters to draw cards and dispositions (in those years, Russia fought with Sweden), made drawings of thirty-two lowercase letters of the new alphabet, as well as four capital letters "A", "D", "E" and "T".

In June 1707, Peter I were obtained from Amsterdam Samples of the medium-sized font, and in September - the test of the trial set by the fonts is large and small. Then in the Netherlands, a printing machine and other typographical equipment was purchased, masters of typographs for work in Russia and the training of Russian specialists were invited.

On January 1, 1708, Peter's Decree was signed: "... Tombi to print geometry in Russian ... and inone civilian books to print Temie new alphabets ...".

The first book printed by the new civilian font was published on March 17, 1708. She wore the title: "Geometri Slavenski Earthmarie" (geometry textbook). The letters "I" Peter did not provide, its functions performed a combination of letters - "and" more than and "a".

However, the civilian alphabet has not yet been finally developed. For two years, from 1708 to 1710, Peter constantly contributed different changes. In a letter to the Count Musina Pushkin dated January 25, 1709, he said: "I only wrote to put the strength (stress), but now I did not put forces." In his letter, the sovereign also noticed that "the stamp of fat in front of the same - tea from the fact that the words have already burned down - which is necessary to watch and overflow." The seemingly "curvature" in the new seal, Peter gave such an order to Count Musina-Pushkin (January 4, 1709): "Literon Buki, also restressed to forward: bewilderly made." Several times the sovereign made changes in a new font, trying to more improve it, for which a repeatedly printed yard represented by sovereign test prints of the alphabet. Only in early 1710 the sample was developed, which arranged the sovereign.

Peter-approved by Peter Ittasis under the title: "An image of an ancient and new letters of Slavic, printed and handwritten" was sent on February 10, 1710 in the printing house with the following Petra's own inscription: "SIMI LITERIES Print historical and manifect books, and which are underlined, those in the above-mentioned Do not use books. " In this sample impression, the sovereign crossed all the capital and capital Slavic letters and completely excluded the letters "from", "Omega" and "Psi".

The typography archive stores the following document. "1710 Genwar at 29 Day Great Sovereign Tsar and Grand Duke Peter Alekseevich All Savory and Malya and Bellya Russia Self-adjacent pointed to his nominal sovereign decree in order books of printed business to explore the above number of historical and handwritten (on the fields: manuff) books and What are the sent translations to print asterdam new-induced listers ... ".

Introduction of civil font

In 1708, a civil font was introduced for the printing of literature of secular content, which finally divided the secular and church book and contributed to an increase in the number of civilians. For 27 years, from 1698 to 1725, about 900 books were issued, not counting the numerous engraving sheets. The font was created according to the sketches of Peter I, cast in Amsterdam. In 1708, first books using a new font were printed in 1708.

The font is based on the Moscow semi-supersay, the speed. In his creation was attended by I.F. Skievsky (Ilya Fedorovich Kopievich) and the Slullitz M. Efremov. On the sample sent by them, Peter in 1710 wrote: "By the literals to print artistic and manufactory books, and those who are undressed in the above books not to use."

A new alphabet containing rounded with a clear drawing of the letter came to change Cyrillic with its complex graphics. The composition of the alphabet was changed, the spelling was simplified, eight letters seized, instead of the alphabetic designations of numbers, numbers were introduced.

Peter 1 as a bookbook organizer

The development of a book case was observed and with the direct participation of Peter I. The Cabinet Lists were preserved in which Peter I celebrated the passage of Russian books in foreign printing houses, his numerous letters to publishers, editors, translators, many texts edited by him, editing in correctional impulsions, samples Translations.

The king is talking about the gigantic volume of the editorial work of the king, the fact that almost all the books printed by civilian fonts were viewed by the emperor, and many he edited. Moreover, there are cases of multiple and cardinal processing of texts.

Even in the campaign, Peter demanded that heti and samples of new editions could be sent to him, giving detailed instructions and orders to translators, typographs. He took with him hiking and typographic camp, specially made for these purposes in 1711.

The first book, recruited by Amsterdam, was translated in 1708 with German Ya. V. Bruce "Geometry Slovenian Surveyor". The "geometry" was based on the Austrian edition of the "Trees of Circular and Rulers", processed by Peter. A manuscript sent to him by Bruce is dotted, marked, inserts and additions "in the premium places." Peter gave the book and the new name. All corrections and processing had a clearly pronounced practical, engineering meaning. The basis of the work of steel 104 tasks for building. In this edition, the king in practice carried out its requirement for translations. He considered it necessary to transmit the not literal accuracy of the text of the original, but "by expressing the text, ... to write like that in my tongue, as well ... and not high words of Slovenian and ordinary Russian."

In the second edition, published under the "Trees of Circular and Rule", practical, engineering tasks have been revealed even more clearly. The third part of it also contained the texts of Russian authors, and the head of the construction of the solar clock was written by Peter I.

The level of preparation of publications in the XVIII century shows the development of editorial began in book publishing. New elements appear in publications, the content has a secular character, the design speaks of attention to this side of the book.

The first Russian printed technical book came out in 1708. This is a book about the ways creating the vacation rivers free ", or, as Petr called her," Book of the Loan ". It is devoted to hydraulic engineering and was intended as a practical manual for Russian hydraulic engineers. The book was translated from French B. Volkov and basically reflected Dutch experience.

Its text repeatedly as the Petr rules are transferred, and the chapter "way, how to extract ships to the bottom immersed or swapped into the sea, and how to save the goods" completely recycled.

Edited Peter and other technical books, such as the fortification of the "winning fortress" (1708) and the translation of the "Architecture of Military". From the translation, the king demanded simplicity of presentation, accuracy and practical meaning.

One of the first books prepared for the publication in St. Petersburg became the "Book of Marsov, or Military Affairs ...". There are 11 of its copies, differing from each other in content, since they are all corrective prints containing various documents. Part of the editors in them are made by Peter's hand or on its instructions.

Work on the publication is a change and addition of text and illustrations - went for several years. Changes were made after the events. Therefore, the corrective prints are different in content. The main concern of Peter was completeness and accuracy of presentation. The records made by his hand indicate the need to use additional sources to the plans, refinement refinements, etc. Peter calls specific documents containing the necessary information. His hand inscribed headlines to engravings and inscriptions to images of fireworks.

These materials disclose such aspects of editorial preparation of the publication as the organization of the material in the book, the principles of the editor of those years over the language and style, show how the literary editing of the texts was carried out.

"The Charter of the Military" and "Marine Charter", containing the richest and extensive material on the technique, fortification, the construction of ships, their operation, artillery, the creation of port structures, were fully written by the king and issued under his observation.

In 1722, under the editors of Peter, the "Regulations on Admiralty and Verfi Management", which contains a set of technical rules for shipbuilding. In it, for the first time in Russian, information was provided on the technology of processing metals and wood, the production of fibrous substances, glass case, as well as the norms and conditions of work in various fields of industry.

A typical group of publications in the Petrovskaya era was the book "New Manner to strengthen cities ...", the editor of which was the king himself, and the translator from the French - Ivan Nikitich Zotov. Working on this absolutely concrete technical content of the book, Peter showed himself a master of scientific and political editing.

Since in the period under review in the array of publications, as already mentioned, translations prevailed, Peter's constant attention paid for translation activities. He himself selected books for translation, looked through them during preparation for the publication, said the text.

Peter taught when transferring critically to the original, eliminate the insignificant and not related place to complement the content of examples from domestic practice. From translations of educational and technical literature, Peter demanded brevity, clarity, practical orientation, completeness and accuracy.

On December 15, 1702, Peter signed a decree on the release of the first Russian printed newspaper "Vedomosti".

Thus, thanks to the publishing, translation and editorial activity of Peter, many principles and methods of editorial training of book publications developed subsequently and survived so far have been implemented in practice.

First of all, they concern the publications of works of scientific and educational literature. In particular, a certain form of submission of material was developed, the requirements for individual elements of the apparatus of these editions, the methods of presentation, the structure of the work.

Civilian font

"Geometria Slavensky Surveyor" - the first book, recruited by civil font

HISTORY OF RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

Portal: Russian

Civilian font, or civilian, is the font introduced in Russia by Peter I in 1708 for printing secular editions as a result of the first reform of the Russian alphabet (changes in the composition of the alphabet and simplifying the alphabet letters).

The prerequisite for creating a civil font was fashion for Latin, which spread in the environment of educated Russian people in the 1680s - 1690s. Civil font became a compromise between supporters of traditions and those who sought to maximize the full borrowing of Western culture.

The Petrovsky reform of the Russian typographic font was carried out in 1708-1710. Its purpose was to bring the appearance of the Russian book and other printed publications to how the Western European publications looked sharply different from typical medieval views of Russian publications, which were gained by Church Slavonic font - semi-supersay. In January 1707 according to the sketches, presumably performed personally, by Peter I, the thistle and drawing officer of Kulenbach, consisting at the headquarters of the army, made drawings of thirty-two lowercase letters of the Russian alphabet, as well as four capital letters (A, D, E, T). A complete set of font signs in three sizes in the drawings of Kulenbach was ordered in Amsterdam in the printing house of the Belarusian Master Ilya Skievich; At the same time, fonts for these drawings were ordered in Moscow, on the printed courtyard.

As appears from the letters of Peter, in June 1707 they were obtained from Amsterdam Samples of the medium-sized font, and in September - prints of the test set of large and small-sized fonts. In the Netherlands, a printing machine and other typographical equipment was acquired, as well as expertly, qualified masters-typographs for work in Russia and the training of Russian specialists.

By the end of 1707, three invited Dutch typographers (Slollitz, a typewriter and printer), together with a font, typographical machine and other accessories already reached Moscow and started work. On January 1, 1708, Peter signed a decree: "... sent by the Galanskian land, the city of Amsterdam, a book printed business, masterful people ... Those alphabets to print a book with a geometry in Russian ... and iniquia civilian books to print Temie new alphabets ...". The first book, recruited by the new font, "Geometria Slaven Slaven" (textbook of geometry), was published in March 1708. Others followed behind it.

Approached on the schedule to Western European, the new font was conceived to simplify the typographic set on the printing machines made in Western Europe. New - civil - the font was intended for printing secular editions: official publications and periodicals, technical, military, scientific, educational and fiction. In addition to the introduction of a new drawing of letters, the alphabet and the composition of the alphabet were reviewed: the first signs and some double letters of the semi-wool were excluded, the letter was approved, the European (Arab) numbers were approved instead of the alphabetic designations of the numbers, the punctuation and the use of a capital liter in the set are approved. The use of the semi-wool was limited to the sphere of liturgical literature.

The composition of the Russian alphabet and its graphics continued to change and later. The alphabet was established by the middle of the XVIII century and kept in this form until the reforms of 1917-1918, the drawing of the letters quite coincided with the present in the middle of the XIX century. According to a Russian civil font and using the same inventories of letters (with the necessary changes), writing and other peoples who used Cyrillic (Serbian, Bulgarian, Romanian) were reorganized in the XVIII-XIX centuries.

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Books

• Civil Font and Cyrillic Kish, Vladimir Efimov. The beginning was encouraging. After all, the recognized masters, and beginner designers came to lecture to learn about the craft from one of the most experienced artists of the font. And the nearer immediately opens them ...